Criminology Class Notes

Criminology Class Notes for Chapters 1 through and through and through 10, and 12 (Full Course Materials) Chapter 1 wrong offence and Criminology What is Criminology? An pedantic discipline that drills scientific administrations to topic the temperament, ex ecstasyt, beat, and bid of shepherds crook fashion. What Do Criminologists Do? immoral Statistics/ discourtesy Measurement involves reckon the amount and tr abates of poisonous symboliseivity and foc slips on creating valid and reliable measures of felonious fashion. This is through by an analysis of the activities of legal philosophy and accost agencies.Measuring un equityful activity non describe to the natural law by dupes. Identifying the victims of discourtesy. Developing Theories of embarrass Causation Criminological orientations Psychological villainy as a duty of psycheality, widenment, affectionate learning, or cognition ( under(a)standing). Biological anti companionable mien as a utilisation of biochemical, genetic, and neurological detailors. Sociological immoral look as a product of societal forces including neighborhood anatomys, p al nonp atomic number 18il told overty, fri hold onlyization, and gathering inter execute. Criminologists uncloudedthorn delectation innovative methods to test sup smirch.For example, the in put in of magnetised resonance im ripening to assess the chief function of manlike batterers. The true ca do of offence is still hassleatic effrontery same conditions, wherefore do any(prenominal) the great unwashed contract discourtesy firearm early on(a)s do non? Understanding and Describing il court- indicate per united doings look into of Specific roughshod Types and umbrage Patterns 50 stratums ago, look forers rivet on perceived major wickednesss including b impression, shoot, and burglary. to daylight, al roughly re hunt clubers revolve or so on umbrages including stalking, cyber iniquity, terrorism, and shun umbrages. theoretical billhook Terrorism and the terrorist ad hominemity a.Mental illness is non a sm tot on the wholey factor in pardoning terrorist doings, intimately terrorists atomic sum 18 not psychopaths. b. at that induct is no terrorist record. c. Histories of childhood ab intake/ impairment and themes of perceived in umpire and humiliation ar a great deal prominent in terrorist biographies s machinece do not help to explain terrorism. Penology penalty, Sanctions, and Corrections Penology is touch on with the correction and sen ecstasycing of kn film twist offenders. patch some criminologists uninfectedthorn advocate rehabilitation, others w markethorn advocate capital penalisation and required sentences.Criminologists as a whole atomic bend 18 c erstrned with evaluating the military capability and impingement of discourtesy temper programs. dupeology Criminologists who study exploitation deport piece that guilt feelingsys argon at great insecurity for victimisation than non- bends. Addition entirelyy, victims whitethorn be eng ripening in high- venture port, such(prenominal) as offense, which maturations their development. A History of Criminology The scientific study of villainy and depravity is a relatively recent development. During the Middle considerable ms (1200-1600) mint who vio youngd companionable and religious norms were counted as worldness witches or possessed by demons.Torture was utilise to extract confessions, and malefactors cleard jumpy penalties, including whipping, branding, maiming, and execution. In the mid 1700s, Italian professor Ces be Beccaria developed a outline that piece behavior is driven by a woof in the midst of the amount of amusement gained over the amount of pain or penalisation experient. He walld that in clubhouse to snip or stop twist behavior, the penalisation should be swift, sure, and severe. This sur mise of devoid leave became k straight awayn as the unstained surmisal.Classical criminology the theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) tribe receive free pull up gages to puzzle out out malefactor or conventional behaviors (2) populate choose to target plague for reasons of greed or personal need and (3) abomination goat be rigled only by the headache of unlawful sanctions. Positivist Criminological surmise holds that around criminal behavior is the number of genial, psychological, and even biological defines. Positivism is the divide of brotherly science that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that compassionate behavior is a product of neighborly, biological, psychological, or economical factors.Biological Determinism Ces ar Lombroso (1835-1909) is turn overed the arrive of criminology. Lombrosos theory of anthropological criminology essentially tell that immorality was inherited, and that some maven born crimi nal could be identified by bodily defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage. Lombrosos strict biological determinism is no degenerative larnn undecomposedly. Bio well-disposed theory Criminologists present recently tie-in offensive activity and biological traits, and create looked at the link among somatogenetic and tender traits and their influence on behavior (which similarly take into fib cordial and environ mental conditions).Sociological Criminology Variables such as age, race, gender, socioeconomic status and heathenishity reserve been shown to find been shown to meet a signifi green goddesst relationship with certain categories and patterns of shame. The themes of sociological criminology tooshie be traced to Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). It employs the use of societal statistics to investigate the influence of affable factors on the propensity to trust abhorrence. These factors complicate age, call down, s eason, climate, nation composition, and poverty.According to Durkheim, offence is normal, inevitable, and is useful and at clocks even healthful for society (as it laughingstock pave the way for amicable c fluxe). skeleton from Durkheim, sociologists pass examined the ways that anomie (i. e. , a breakdown of social norms) can pay off deflexion (a departure from accepted standards of behavior) in communities. The loot direct Criminologists from the University of loot including Robert Ezra lay (1864-1944), Ernest W. Burgess (1886-1966), and Louis Wirth (1897-1952) determined that social forces ope noetic in urban atomic number 18as create a wickedness-promoting environment umbrage is a social phenomenon.This challenged the widely held belief that criminals were biologically or psychologically impaired or morally inferior. These criminologists felt that plague could be eradicated by improving social and economic conditions. Chicago School criminologist Walter Reck little hypothe sized that offensive communicates when children develop an in equal to(predicate) self-image, rendering them incapable of commanding their misbehavior. tenderization takes look into during the 1930s and forties linked criminal behavior to the fictitious character of an individua describes relationship to important social plowes, including education, family life, and friction match relations.Edwin Sutherland, the preeminent American criminologist, noted that lot learn criminal attitudes from h adeptst-to- practisedness, to a greater extent than(prenominal) birthd offenders. Conflict theory the think ofing that human behavior is named by interpersonal scrap and that those who assert social exp mavinnt go forth use it to further their own ends. Karl Marx (1818-1883), is the author of Communist Manifesto a description of oppressive labor conditions overriding during the rise of industrial capitalism. Marx felt that the character of every societ y is determined by its mode of production, and that the economic system controls all aspects of human life.Exploitation of the give waying naval division would last lead to class contravene and the end of the capitalist system. The social upheaval of the sixties prompted criminologists to analyze the social conditions in the unite States that promoted class conflict and discourtesy. A critical criminologist examines and analyzes the social conditions that promote class conflict and wickedness. Is umbrage a product of the capitalist system? Developmental Criminology Delinquency look into in the 1940s and 1950s conducted by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck that foc apply on the earlier aggression of iniquity as an indication of a criminal c arr.The some important factors think to large offending was family relations. Children with low intelligence, a background of mental disease, and a mesomorph number (a human physiologic type that is label by greater than number t idy development) were to the highest spot belike to keep going persistent offenders. Contemporary Criminology Classical theory had evolved into sagacious Choice system the pick up that aversion is a function of a finis-making cognitive process in which the practicable offender weighs the electromotive force costs and benefits of an illegal act.Lombrosian biological profitableness has evolved into contemporary biosocial and psychological trait theory witnesss. Trait theory the view that delinquency is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits. The original Chicago School sociological vision has alter into tender Structure hypothesis the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary bring forth of crime. favorable Process Theory the view that criminality is a function of peoples interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society. accessible process theorists now focus on upbringing and socialization. Many criminologists still view social and political conflict as the root cause of crime. The Gluecks pioneering explore has influenced a young generation of developmental theorists. unnatural or sad? How Criminologists Define aversion Deviance is any action that departs from the social norms of society. A deviant act becomes a crime when it is deemed socially harmful or uncivilised it go forth thence be specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under the criminal equity. criminal offense and deviance ar often confused. The shifting description of deviant behavior is closely associated with our theorys of crime.For example, be steerings of naked (fictional) children acts of deviance or criminal acts? Individuals, institutions, or regimen agencies whitethorn mount a tally aimed at convincing the exoteric and patrolmakers that what is considered a deviant behavior is actually austere and essential be criminalized. An example is chafe Anslingers moral crusade, in the 1930s, urging the criminalization of marijuana. The Concept of nuisance Criminologists align themselves with one of several instills of approximation regarding what constitutes criminal behavior and what causes people to interlock in criminality. The Consensus View of wickedness disgusts be behaviors that all elements of society consider to be repulsive. The criminal law reflects the nourishs, beliefs, and opinions of societys mainstream. It implies that crime is a function of the beliefs, morality, and rules inherent in Western civilization, and that laws apply equally to all members of society. The Conflict View of offense This theory depicts society as a assembly of diverse groups that ar in unvarying and continuing conflict. Groups, able to do so, musical accompaniment political exponent to use the law and criminal fullice system to matu tempo their economic and social positions. poisonous laws be viewed as acts created to protect the postulates from the pick out-nots. The poor go to prison house, and the wet receive lenient sentences for even the closely dependable breaches of law. The Interactionist View of nuisance The definition of crime reflects the preferences and opinions of people who hold social power. These people use their influence to inspect their definition of right and wrong on the rest of the association. flagitiouss atomic number 18 individuals that society labels as outcasts or deviants because they waste violated social rules. umbrages atomic number 18 outlawed behaviors because society defines them that way, not because they are inherently evil or immoral acts. Interactionists see criminal law as conforming to the beliefs of moral crusaders, and are concerned with shifting moral and legal standards. curse and the Criminal natural law The concept of criminal law has been recognized for over 3,000 historic period. Code of Hammurabi Law law issued during the sovereignty of Hammurabi of Babyl on (1780 BCE Before our Common Era). It called for compensation ( tax return) for a looting victim if the thief was not caught.This was thought to be fair because the put forward of matter failed to maintain law and order. Since the state was responsible for paying back, the cypher lessen feuds and vengeance among families. Since this time, counter has been in all criminal codes. arial mosaic Code (1200 BCE) It is not only the foundation of Judeo-Christian moral teachings alone is likewise a basis for the U. S. legal system. The code noted prohibitions against acts including murder, theft, perjury, and vaingloriousery . Common Law Judge-made law that came into existence during the reign of incline King Henry II (1154-1189), when violet judges began to publish their decisions in local anesthetic cases.A fixed soundbox of legal rules develop from published judicial decisions. If a sore rule was successfully applied in a number of different cases, it would become a pre cedent. Precedents would then be ordinarily applied in all similar cases hence the term common law. Mala in se and mala prohibita We can categorize crimes as both mala in se or mala prohibita. Mala in se crimes are crimes such as murder, colza, or breach that are considered wrong in themselves, found on shared values. Mala prohibita crimes are not wrongs in themselves but are punished because they are prohibited by the government.thither is often a omit of consensus rough whether such actions (e. g. , use of marijuana, gambling, prostitution) should be illegal. hatfuls views of the distressfulness of various crimes depend on their race, sex, class, and victimization experience. We may in any case categorize crimes as felonies ( well(p) offenses) or misdemeanors (minor or petty crimes). social Goals of Contemporary Criminal Law Enforcing social control Discouraging revenge Expressing state- back up opinion and morality Deterring criminal behavior Punishing wrongdoing Cre ating equityMaintaining social order The Evolution of Criminal Law Criminal law is constantly evolving to reflect social and economic conditions. Change may be prompted by exceedingly publicized cases that amaze devotion and concern. Criminal law may change referable to shifts in husbandry and social conventions . For example, in Lawrence v. Texas, the U. S. Supreme court of law held that laws banning sodomy between consenting adults in a hidden residency were unconstitutional because they violated the delinquent process rights of citizens because of their sexual orientation.Ethical Issues in Criminology What and Whom to Study ? For criminological researchers, a definite darling predicament is presented when the info one collects is in thoroughgoing opposition to the values and objectives of his or her reinforcement agency. This is becoming an change magnitudely important ethical issue to consider as much criminological research projects are being funded by variou s external get-gos ranging from reclusive enterprises to government initiatives.When confronted with such a conflict of interest, researchers are casingd with the decision of whether to illegalize certain reading to protect the rush of their funding agency, or alternating(a)ly to go against this mission in the interest of academic integrity. For example, a study funded by the private Corrections Corporation of America that asked researchers to study the recidivism counts of offenders housed in state funded versus in camera funded (like CCA) correctional facilities. Criminologists spend a penny focused on the poor and minorities charm ignoring groups including middle-class vocational crime and organized crime.Methods used in conducting research must ensure that The subjects are randomly selected and are fully apprised about the purpose of the research. The information must remain occult, and the sources of information must be protected. discussion QUESTIONS In order to get out understand the workings and motivations of a criminal gang, would it be ethical for a criminologist to hang out with gang members and watch as they vow crime? Should the criminologist identify spy criminal gang behavior to the police? Which acts, now legal, would you make criminal, and which currently criminal acts would you legalize?Chapter 2- The personality and Extent of crime What is the primary sources of crime data? The FBIs supply offensive inform (UCR) is the most cited source of U. S. crime statistics. The UCR Program publishes an annual enrolment containing accounts of crimes known to police and information on set abouts received on a free basis from 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies throughout the U. S. take up I crimes the most in force(p) murder and non-negligent manslaughter forcible rape robbery aggravated break burglary larceny arson motor vehicle theft. Homicide is the most accu wander and valid UCR statisticPart II crimes all less serious crimes, including other lash outs forgery and counterfeiting fraud embezzlement stolen property (buying, receiving, possessing) vandalism weapons ( enchant, possessing, etc. ) prostitution sex offenses medicate abuse violations gambling offenses against the family and children driving under the influence liquor laws drunkenness underground conduct vagrancy all other offenses (except traffic). light or false complaints are eliminated, and the number of actual known offenses is describe whether or not an glom is made.Cleared crimes are as well describe cleared via an arrest, charging, and being saturnine over for prosecution or cleared by exceptional way (ex. , distrust left the country). Validity of the UCR The UCRs accuracy has long been suspect. Many serious crimes are not explanationed to police. victims may consider the crime unimportant. victims may not trust the police. victims may not countenance property insurance. Victims worry reprisals. Victims may be involved in illegal activities themselves. Criticisms aside, the UCR continues to be one of the most widely used source of crime statistics.It is collected in a guardful and systematic way. Measurement of division to year change accurate because any problems are stable over time. The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) is the pass on of lying-ins to pass on a more than comprehensive and exact UCR the NIBRS collects superfluous data on each key outed crime incident, including a brief account of the incident, arrest, victim, and offender. Crime data may also be collected by elbow room of survey research. nation are asked about attitudes, beliefs, values, characteristics, and experiences with crime and victimization.The National Crime exploitation Survey (NCVS) Nationwide survey of individual and household victimization conducted by the U. S. nestle count Bureau for the Bureau of Justice Statistics. It addresses the nonreporting issue. The NCVS hear size is 76,000 households and 135,000 individuals age 12 and older. Households resist-out procedure in the assay for leash years with new households rotated into the sample on an ongoing basis. In 1993, the NCVS was redesigned to raise detailed information on relative frequency and nature of rape, sexual assault, personal robbery, aggravated and bare(a) assault, household burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft.Victim information provided in the NCVS implys age, sex, race, ethni urban center, matrimonial status, income, and education take aim. Crime information included in the NCVS includes time, place, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic consequences. Validity of the NCVS It is a more complete picture of the nations crime problem, and addresses the nonreporting issue. It helps us to understand why crimes are not reported to police The NCVS has methodological problems, however. at that place may be an overreporting due to victims misinterpretation of ev ents. There may be underreporting due to victims embarrassment, vexation, or forgetfulness.The hereafter of the NCVS Its forte has been undermined by budget limitations, and its sample size and methods of data collection contribute been altered. ten-fold years of data are now combined in order to stimulation on change over time this is less desirable than year-to-year change. Criminologists may also measure crime by the use of self-report surveys. Participants are asked to describe their recent and life history participation in criminal activity. closely self-report surveys focus on new-fashioned delinquency and offspring crime. Validity of Self-Reports Expecting people to apply illegal acts is un in all probability. whatsoever people exaggerate, forget, or are confused about their criminal acts. Self-reports may measure only nonserious, occasional delinquents while ignoring hard-core inveterate offenders who may be institutionalized. Monitoring the coming(prenominal ) Survey was an effort to improving the reliability of self-reports. Since 1978, the Monitoring the next survey, conducted by the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research (ISR), has surveyed high school students crossways the U. S. It has shown that a surprising number of true teenagers reported involvement in serious criminal behavior.If accurate, the MTF survey data evoke a much greater crime problem than the UCR and NCVS. Evaluating Crime Data UCR For serious crimes, the arrest data can provide a meaningful measure of criminal activity that other data sources cannot provide. more than criminological research is based on the UCR. NCVS Includes unreported crime and personal characteristics of victims. It relies on personal recollections. The data consists of estimates based on limited samples of the US universe of discourse, and does not include data on crime patterns, including murder and medicine abuseSelf-report surveys can provide information on personal c haracteristics of offenders, and rely on the honesty of criminal offenders and medicate abusers. Crime Trends 1833-1860 gradual change magnitude in the crime rate, especially blood-red crime Post-Civil state of war Crime rate change magnitude importantly for 15 years. 1880-WWI Reported crimes lessen. Steady crash until the Depression (about 1930) when another crime pother was recorded. 1930 1960 Crime rate change magnitude gradually. The homicide rate chargeed around 1930. 1970s The homicide rate sharply subjoind. Trends in Officially put down Crime 980-1990 Sharp increase in rate of robbery, motor vehicle theft, and homicide. There was also an increase in youth firearm homicide rate (adult homicide rate fell). Since 1990 metrical composition of crime in crash. There has been a square drop in UCR uncivilised crimes, including murder, rape, robbery, and assault. The rage rate has dropped almost 40%. Property crime rate have also declined a 10% decline in aside dec ade. Homicide rate held relatively steady from 1950 mid-1960. Homicide rate hit a anthesis of 10. 2 per carbon,000 in 1980. 1980-1991 Homicide rate fluctuated between 8 and 10 per 100,000. 991-2008 Homicide rate dropped more than 40% supporting the fact that the boilers suit crime rate is in remission. Trends in victimization Similar to the UCR, NCVS data foretell that victimizations have declined importantly during the past 30 years. 1973 44 million victimizations Today 23 million victimizations What the early Holds proximo crime rates may increase due to the large number of children who pull up stakes enter their crime prone years. Future crime rates may also be offset by the aging of the population large number of precedential citizens. Technological and social factors may shape the direction of the crime rate.Technological developments have resulted in new classes of crime. close to deliberate that the swollen-headed youth culture that stresses materialism is being replaced by more moralistic ethnical values that may moderate electric potency crime rate growth. It is too early to predict if the overall downward curl in crime rates impart continue into the foreseeable future. Crime Patterns The bionomics of Crime Day, season and climate virtually reported crimes occur during the warm pass months of July and August. Exceptions Murders and robberies occur frequently in celestial latitude and January.Crime rates are high on the first day of the month. Temperature crime rates seem to increase with rising temperatures and then begin to decline at 85 degrees when it may be too stifling for any physical exertion. Some criminologists recollect that crime rates rise with temperature. Research also indicates that a rising temperature will cause crimes such as municipal force-out to continually increase, while other crimes (such as rape) will decline later on(prenominal) temperatures rise to an highly high level. constitutional temperatur es cause stress and tension that prompts the body to release stress hormones.Hormonal activity has been linked to aggression. Regional differences Large, urban theatre of operationss have the highest furiousness rates. Rural areas have the lowest per capita crime rates with the exception of low population resort areas with large seasonal populations. white plague of Firearms Firearms are involved in about 20% of robberies, 10% of assaults, and over 5% of rapes. Two-thirds of all murders involve firearms most are hand particle accelerators. Criminals of all races/ethnicities are equally belike to use firearms in uncivilized crimes. current debate over gun controlCriminologists favoring gun control The proliferation of handguns and the high rate of deadly violence they cause is the single most significant factor separating the US crime problem from that of the rest of the developed world. Criminologists contend to gun control Kleck and Gertz have found that personal gun use can be a deterrent to crime. Social Class, Socioeconomic Conditions and Crime Crime is mainly a dismantle-class phenomenon. Instrumental crimes occur when those on the lowest rung of the social ladder are unable to cash in ones chips out desired goods and services via conventional heart and soul and may resort to illegal activities to dominate them.Expressive crimes Those living in poverty engage in dispro hazardal amounts of crimes as a result of their rage, frustration, and anger against society. Alcohol and medicine use is common in impoverish areas and helps to fuel violent crime. UCR data indicate crime rates in interior-city, high-poverty areas are higher(prenominal) than those in suburban or pixilated areas. Surveys of prisoners consistently indicate prisoners were members of the lower class and unemployed or under-employed in the years prior to incarceration. As option explanation is that the relationship between ex officio crime nd social class is a function of la w enforcement practices. Social class and Self-reports Juveniles in all social classes localise crime. Serious crime is more prevalent in socially disorganized lower class areas. Less serious offenses are spread more evenly throughout the social structure. Community-level indicators of poverty and disturb are associated with the most serious violent crimes. Age and Crime Age is inversely related to criminality. Younger people commit more crime than older people and this relationship has been stable over time. The peak age for property crimes is believed to be 16.The peak age for violent crime is believed to be 18. Young people are arrested at a dissymmetrical rate to their numbers in the population. Adults age 45 and older account for a third of the population but account for less than 10% of crime arrests. The elderly comprise 12 % of the population but less than 1% of arrests. Aging out of crime good deal commit less crime as they age. Crime peaks in adolescence and then decl ines spryly thereafter. Adults develop the ability to slow down gratification, start wanting to take responsibility for their behavior, and bandage to conventional norms.Research People who maintain successful marriages are more likely to cease from antisocial behavior than those whose marriages fail. Age and biological science Some criminologists believe the key to abstaining and aging out is linked to human biology. Neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine) runaway a role in aggression. dopamine facilitates offensive behavior. During adolescence, dopamine increases while serotonin is cut down. Change in thought chemical science parallels the aging out process. Gender and Crime mannish crime rates are much higher than feminine crime rates. The potent- young-bearing(prenominal) arrest ratio is almost 4 males to one feminine.Murder arrests Eight males to one feminine Self-report data (Monitoring the Future data as an example) indicate males self-report more crime but not to the degree suggested by decreed data. everyplace the past decade the male arrest rates have declined by 9% female arrest rates have increased by 9%. increase female arrest rates especially for robbery and burglary Conclusion During the backwardness of the overall crime rates, women have increased their participation in crime. Trait differences Lombrosos masculinity hypothesis a a couple of(prenominal) masculine females were responsible for the handful of crimes that women attached.These women lacked typical female traits of piety, maternity, undeveloped intelligence, and weakness. Such viewpoints are no longer taken seriously. Criminologists still link antisocial behavior to hormonal influences, however. Male sex hormones (androgens) account for aggressive male behavior. Socialization Differences Girls are socialized to be less aggressive than boys. Cognitive Differences topping verbal ability may throw overboard girls and women to talk rather than fight. Social/ co nstitution-making Differences Liberal libber theory female crime rates linked to the social and economic roles of women in society.Lower female crime rates explained by womens second-class economic and social positions. Female and male crime rates would converge as womens social roles change and became more like mens. The rapid increase in female crime rates seems to support liberal feminist theory. Race and Crime nonage group members are involved in a disproportionate share of criminal activity. African Americans comprise 12% of the population, yet account for 38% of violent crime arrests, 30% of property crime arrests, and a disproportionate amount of Part II arrests. What do data indicate? Data may reflect true racial differences in the crime rate.Data may reflect yield in the justice process. Monitoring the Future and other self-report data find piddling severalise of racial disparity in crimes committed. The delinquent behavior of baleful and white teenagers are generally similar. Differences in arrest statistics may indicate a derived function selection process by police. Critics charge police officers operationly use racial profiling to stop African Americans and search their cars without probable cause or reasonable suspicion. It is improbable that police appreciation and/or bias, alone, could account for proportions of minorities arrested for violent crimes, however.Racism and discrimination Some criminologists view black crime as a function of socialization in society the black family torn aside and black culture destroyed beyond recovery. Racism is still an element of day-by-day life in the black community. It undermines office in the justice system and religion in social and political institutions. racial bane theory As the helping of African Americans in the population increases, so does the amount of social control that the justice system aims at blacks. Significant research exists to support that the justice system may be raciall y biased.Black and Latino adults are less likely than whites to receive bail in violent crime cases. Minority juveniles are more likely than white juveniles to be kept in grip pending trial in juvenile court. Indigent or unemployed African Americans are more likely than whites to receive longer prison sentences. Economic and social disparity Racial and ethnic minorities are often laboured to live in high crime areas. Racial and ethnic minorities face a greater degree of social isolation and economic neediness than the white absolute majority. Black youths are forced to attend essentially segregated, under-funded, and deteriorated schools.Family diarrhea Family dissolution is tied to low employment rates among black males, leading to strained marriages. Increased hazard of early final stage by disease and violence results in a large number of single, female-headed households in black communities. Weakened or disrupted families result in compromised social control. Divorce and time interval rates are importantly associated with homicide rates in black communities. chronic Offenders/Criminal vocations A small group of biography or chronic offenders account for the majority of all criminal offenses.Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellins 1972 study, Delinquency in a Birth Cohort The continuing 6% boys arrested five times or more, who accounted for six pct of the total sample of 9,945 accounted for 51. 9% of all the offenses committed by the cohort, 71% of homicides, 73% of rapes, 82% of robberies, and 69% of aggravated assaults. Arrests and court experiences do smallish to deter the chronic offender. Female chronic offenders rare 1% What Causes Chronicity? Early draw close Children who have been separated to a chassis of personal and social problems, at an early age, are the most at pretend to assume offending.Factors characterizing the chronic offender problems in the family unit and school getting arrested in front age 15 low mind development and pa rental drug involvement. Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept Discovery of the chronic offender has revitalized criminological theory. It is flimsy that social conditions alone can cause chronic offending. Traditional criminological theories have failed to distinguish between occasional and chronic offenders. The chronic offender has become a central focus of crime control policy.Goals of sentencing polices have shifted from rehabilitation to incapacitation. iii strikes laws rules for repeat offenders that require long sentences without rallying cry for faith of a third or higher-order felony. Some states like California and Washington state have passed three strikes laws for repeat offenders. Three felony offenses require up to a life-term of imprisonment. Truth-in-Sentencing is the need that offenders serve a substantial portion of their sentences in front release on parole (usually 85% of their sentence) for a violent crime. This policy can increase imprisonment co sts.DISCUSSION TOPICS Would you set honestly if participating in a national crime survey request about your criminal behavior, including your drinking and drug use? wherefore or why not? How would your honesty and dishonesty impact self-report studies? With regard to gender differences in the crime rate, why do you think that males are more violent than females? Considering the crimes listed as Part I offenses. Are these the most serious crimes in society? Would you add or delete any crimes or behaviors to/from the list? If so, which crimes and why? Chapter 3 Victims and usingThe Classical School of criminology emphasizes that people are rational beings and are free to choose the behaviors they engage in. victimization theories suggest the same thing in that victims choose to engage in risky activities or choose not to take the time to make themselves less openhearted to offenders. Victimology is the scientific study of victims. Victimizations Toll on Society NCVS 23 million vi ctimizations per year be of victimization Damaged property pain and trauma involvement of criminal justice system medical checkup costs, lost wages trim down quality of life, fearTotal loss related to criminal victimization $450 billion annually $1,800 per person Individual Costs Assault $9,400 The average murder costs about $3 million. Individuals suffering a violent victimization during adolescence earn about $82,000 less than non-victims due to physical and psychological problems that impede educational and economic success. Some victims become physically disabled. Blaming the victim Innuendos and insinuations from friends, family. Victim blaming is especially indefinable for rape victims. Negative reactions from professionals. Negative reactions from family and friends.Negative reactions from either source reinforces un consequence about whether the victims experience qualifies as rape. Sympathetic and responsive support help rape victims maintain government agency and res ults in willingness to report their victimizations. Long-Term show Post-traumatic sieve Disorder (PTSD) A condition with symptoms including depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior. It is a common problem when victims do not receive adequate support. Rape victims are finically sensitized to PTSD. Adolescent Stress Kids who experience traumatic sexual experiences later suffer psychological deficits.Many run away to escape their environment. Others suffer post-traumatic mental problems. Stress does not end in childhood may have low self-esteem and may be suicidal as adults. They may be re-abused as adults. Abuse as a child may lead to despair, depression, and rooflessness as adults. Homeless women are likely to have suffered childhood physical and sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and likely to have a history of mental problems. Relationship Stress Victims of spouse abuse suffer an extremely high prevalence of psychological problems. ignominious spouses are likely t o abuse their victims psychologically. alarm Victims fear they will be re- exploited. Victims may fear forms of crimes they have not yet experienced. People who have been assaulted fear their scales will be burglarized. Rape victims are especially fearful. People may relocate if they hear that a friend or neighbor has been victimized. Fear is escalated by media accounts of crime and violence. unsociable Behavior People who are crime victims may be more likely to commit crime themselves. The abuse-crime phenomenon is referred to as the cycle of violence. The Nature of Victimization The Social Ecology of VictimizationLocation reddened crime is more likely to take place in an open, public area during daytime or early evening. sequence Serious violent crimes (rape, aggravated assault) after 600 p. m. Less serious violent crimes (unarmed robberies) during the daytime Neighborhood characteristics Central city higher rates of theft and violence than suburban areas Murder importantly higher risk in disorganized inner-city areas Crime in schools During, onward, and after-school activities, adult supervision is minimal. Unattended valuables make mesmerizing targets. Ages 12-18 1. 7 million victims of nonfatal crimes at school.Eight percent of students in ninth to twelfth grades reported being threatened or injured. 22 percent of ninth to twelfth graders report illegal drugs were made available to them on school property. Eighty-six percent of public schools report at least one violent crime occurred at their school. The Victims Household Household picture near susceptible African American, western, and urban homes Less vulnerable Non-African American, Northeast willpower Rental homes more so than have homes Factors impacting decreased household victimization race movement from urban to suburban and pastoral family size has been reduced.Victim Characteristics Gender Except for rape and sexual assault, males are more likely to be victims of violent crime . Women are significantly more likely to be victimized by someone they know or with whom they live. Intimate partner violence seems to be declining. Research indicates that economic inequality is significantly related to female victimization rates. Age Young people face a much greater victimization risk than older people. Victimization risk diminishes quick after age 25. Elderly vulnerable to frauds, scams, stolen checks, purse snatchings, crimes in long-term care facilities. Social statusAcross all gender, age, and racial groups, the poorest are the most likely to be victimized. The homeless suffer high rates of assault. The wealthy are more likely to be targets of personal theft crimes. Race and ethnicity African Americans are twice as likely as non-African-Americans to be victims of violent crimes. There has been a significant decline in victimization rates for both groups, however. marital status Never-married individuals are victimized more those married individuals. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk. Risk is influenced by age and modus vivendi. parallel victimizationPersons and households previously victimized have significantly higher risk of revictimization. Target picture show Victims physical weakness or psychological distress makes them easy targets. Target gratifiability Victims have some quality, possession, skill or attribute an offender wants to obtain. Target antagonism Victims characteristics adjure anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders The Victims and Their Criminals Males are more likely to be violently victimized by a stranger females by a friend, acquaintance, or intimate. Crimes tend to be intraracial.Over half of all nonfatal personal crimes are committed by people known to the victim. Women are especially vulnerable to crime by people they know. Six of every ten rape or sexual assault victims state the offender was known to them. Women are more likely than men to be robbed by a fr iend/acquaintance. Theories of Victimization Victim precipitation theory the view that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation that leads to their victimization. spellive precipitation occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attack first.Passive precipitation occurs when victims scupper some personal characteristic than inadvertently threatens or encourages attackers. Victim impulsivity male and female victims score high on impulsivity tests. They may be abrasive, obnoxious, or antagonistic they may lack self-control they may have a physical rather than mental orientation they may be risk takers and fail to take precautions. Research shows a strong association between victimization risk and impulsive personality. life-style theories views on how people become crime victims because of life-styles that increase their moving picture to criminal offenders.Victimization is increased by associating with young m en, going out at night, living in urban areas. Victimization is reduced by staying home at night, staying out of public areas, living in rustic areas. Crime is not a random occurrence rather, a function of the victims lifestyle. High risk lifestyles Drinking, taking drugs, streak away, getting involved in crime. Males lifestyles expose them to risk more so than females lifestyles. The greater the number of girls in a males consort group, the lower their chances of victimization.The greater the involvement with gangs, guns, and drugs, the greater the risk of being shot/killed. Most at risk of homicide kids who have served time and who have a history of family violence. Lifestyle risks continue into adulthood. College lifestyle Partying and recreational drug use increase risk of victimization. Coeds face higher risk of sexual assault than do females in the general population. Criminal lifestyle Involvement in gangs increases risk of victimization for males and females. Carrying a w eapon males who carry weapons are three times more likely to be victimized than males who do not (33% versus 10%).Deviant place theory the view that victimization is primarily a function of where people live. The greater the exposure to heavy places, the more likely people will become victims of crime. People are prone to victimization because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas. Neighborhood crime levels may be more significant than individual characteristics or lifestyle for find out victimization. Deviant places Poor, densely populated, highly short-lived neighborhoods in which commercial and residential properties exist side-by-side.They are home to demoralized kinds of people who are easy targets addicts, homeless, elderly poor. recourse precautions Effect of safety precautions is less enounce in poor areas. The aim of numerous motivated offenders requires safety precautions. Routine Activities Theory the view that victimization results from the inte raction of three everyday factors the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the presence of motivated offenders. desirable targets objects of crime (persons or property) that are pleasant and readily available.Crime and everyday life Crime began to increase as the country sifted from rural to urban environments. The middle class fled from inner cities to suburbs, promoting a unique set of routine activities promoting victimization. Research support for Routine Activities Theory Crime rates increased between 1960 and 1980 because the number of guardians home during the day decreased as a result of increased female participation in the workforce. As adult unemployment rates increase, the juvenile homicide arrest rates decrease. Availability and cost of goods as costs decline, so to do burglary rates.Caring for the Victim President Ronald Reagan created the Task Force of Victims of Crime in 1982. Suggested a balance be achieved between recognizing victims rights and the defendants due process rights. As a result, Congress passed the Omnibus Victim and Witness Protection Act Victim impact statements at sentencing in federal official criminal cases Greater protection for witnesses more(prenominal) stringent bail laws Use of restitution in criminal cases 1984 Comprehensive Crime Control Act and Victims of Crime Act Authorized federal funding for state victim compensation and assistance projectsVictim gain Programs Victim-witness assistance programs 2,000 across the U. S. Victim salary Victims receive compensation from the state. Compensations programs differ. Many programs lack adequate funding and organization. Compensation for medical bills, loss of wages and future earnings, counseling, interment expenses, emergency assistance. Awards typically range from $100 to $15,000 Victim of Crime Act (1984) funds derived from penalties and fines imposed on federal offenders used to fund state compensation boards. $ three hund red million per year. Victim AdvocatesCounselors who guide victims through the criminal justice process Research rape survivors assigned victim advocates are more likely to file police reports, less likely to be treated negatively by police, report less distress from medical experiences. Court advocates mug up victims and witnesses re the court process. May provide counselors and transportation to and from court. May reduce victim trauma. Victim Impact statements Allowed by most jurisdictions Victim tells of victimization experiences and incumbrances at sentencing. Research Some research shows victim impact statements result in higher incarceration ates, while other research does not show an appreciable consummation. Victim-Offender satisfaction Programs (VORPs) Mediated face-to-face encounters between victims and their attackers Over 120 programs handling 16,000 cases per year knowing for misdemeanor offenses, now also used with felony offenses Victims Rights Every state has a Victims flower of Rights To be notified of proceedings and the status of the defendant To be present at criminal justice proceedings To make a statement at sentencing To receive restitution from a convicted offender To be consulted before a case is dismissed or plea agreement entered To a s muddledy trialTo keep the victims contact information confidential Sex offender registration laws have been adopted at federal level and by most states. Criminology in the password Following a felony assault conviction, Chris chocolate-brown was sentenced to 5 years probation and 180 years of community service. He is serving his community service near his home in Richmond, VA, and he has done yard work at a police sawbuck stable, washed government cars, picked up trash, and cleaned graffiti. Additionally, brownness must undergo a year of domestic violence counseling. By November 25, 2010, chocolate-brown had end 581 hours of community service.In January 2011, Brown completed mandated do mestic violence counseling. In process 2011, Brown picked up a temper and smashed a window in a dressing room at the Good Morning America studio apartment apartment in Manhattan following an interview in which he is asked about his assault conviction. The studio did not press charges. During his childhood, Browns stepfather was apparently, abusive towards his mother. At age 11, Brown warned his mother that he would very likely go to fall hindquarters before age 15 for killing his stepdad over what hed done to her I just want you to know that I sock you.ButIm gonna take a baseball bat one day while you at work, and Im gonna kill him. His stepfather, who lived with Brown and his mother in a trailer park, also once attempted suicide by guess himself in the head. The bullet missed his brain but went straight through his eyes, difference him permanently blind. Brown recalled what it was like to grow up with so much violence When youre blind, your mavens are heightened, like you r smell, hearing, your sense of touch. You can move and maneuver around your sight. But he used to hit my mom.He made me terrified all the time, terrified like I had to pee on myself. I remember one night he made her nose bleed. I was crying and thinking,Im just gonna go crazy on him one day I hate him to this day. Rihannas Upbringing Rihannas childhood was marred by her fathers struggles with addictions to alcohol and crack cocaine and her parents marital problemsthey divorced when she was 14 years old. DISCUSSION TOPICS Do you agree with the authors assessment that a school is one of the most dangerous locations in the community? Do you think your high school was a dangerous environment?Why or why not? What would you advise female college students do to lower their risk of being sexually assaulted? How does your advice relate to the college lifestyle? How should male college students be advised regarding their potential for committing sexual assault? Why is it that society place s more incrimination on females than males when it comes to sexual assault and the college lifestyle? How can this imbalance be remedied? Chapter 4 Choice Theory Because They Want To The criminal justice system in the U. S. is based on the rational choice theory and deterrence.The criminal justice system emphasizes that criminals choose to commit crime, and thus they must be punished. This will then deter them from committing crime again. Since certainty and swiftness are unsufferable in the U. S. , the U. S. criminal justice system emphasizes austereness. However, as the chapter notes, mischievousness is but one of the three elements of deterrence and some argue that it is the weakest. Rational Choice Theory (Choice Theory) the infix that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the probable costs and benefits of an illegal act.Its root are in the classical school of criminology developed by Cesare Beccaria. The classical approac h was replaced by positivist criminology that focused on internal and external factors rather than personal choice and decision making. In the late 1960s, criminologists re-embraced classical ideas. Becker argued that except for a few mentally ill people, criminals behave in rational ways when deciding to commit crime. Wilson noted that offenders value the excitement and iron boot of crime, have a low stake in conformity, and are willing to take greater risks than the average person.Evaluating the Risks of Crime personalised factors gold, revenge, thrills Situational factors target availability, security measures, police presence Burglars choose targets based on value, novelty, resale potential. The decision to commit crime is enhanced by the promise of easy gain with low risk. Those that choose to forgo crime may feel that they stand a good chance of being caught and punished. They fear the consequences of punishment they risk losing the respect of peers, their reputation may b e damaged, and they may experience guilt or shame. Crime is Both abomination and Offender-SpecificOffense-specific the idea that offenders react selectively to the characteristics of situation crimes. Offense-specific factors include Evaluating the target yield luck of security devices Police patrol force Availability of a getaway car Ease of selling stolen merchandise comportment of occupants Presence of neighbors Presence of guard dogs lose routes Entry points and exits Offender-specific the idea that offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit crime. Offender-specific factors include bullheadedness of necessary skills Immediate need for money or valuablesExistence of legitimate financial alternatives Resources to commit the crime Fear of expected fright and punishment Option of alternative criminal acts Physical ability Offenders Economic desire/Opportunity A small number of prostitutes choose to supplement their income via prost itution. Drug users report increasing their criminal involvement proportionate to the costs of their habits. Some offenders are misled about the financial rewards of crime. Evaluating personal traits and experience Career criminals learn limitations of their expertise. Criminals appear to be more impulsive and have less self-control.Some criminal opportunities are simply too good to pass up. Criminal expertise Criminals report learning techniques to help avoid detection. Women are drawn into dealing drugs learn the get by in a businesslike manner. Choosing the place of crime Criminals carefully choose where they will commit crime. Drug dealers evaluate the pizzazz of sales area, preferring the middle of a long block due to visual advantages. Choosing targets Burglars check if dwelling is occupied. Burglars track predictable behavior patterns of occupants. Burglars prefer working between 900 and 1100 a. m. nd in the good afternoon when parents are working or transporting children t o and from school. Is Crime Rational? Target selection seems highly rational. Auto thieves selective in choice of targets for stripping. Burglars choose targets based on value and resale potential. Burglars like to work close to home where they blend in and will not get lost when returning home with their loot. Is Drug Use Rational? At its onset, drug use is controlled by rational decision making. Drug dealers approach their profession in a businesslike fashion. rear Violence Be Rational? untamed criminals select suitable targets based on vulnerability.Robbers choose targets in familiar areas where they have knowledge of escape routes referred to as consciousness space. That avoid free-standing buildings where they can be environ by police. They shy away from victims who may be armed and potentially dangerous. Robbers may target those with dirty hands, such as drug dealers. They may choose targets in order to send a message. Why Do People Commit Crime? Edgework Crime is a mor e attractive alternative than law-abiding behavior. This is due to the epinephrin rush that comes from the exhilarating, momentary integration of danger, risk, and skill. The conquering of CrimeKatz There are immediate benefits to criminality and seductions precede the commission of crime and draw offenders into law violations. Vanquishing opponents The thrill of getting away with crime due to personal competency sneaky thrills A criminal lifestyle may be beneficial to those experiencing stress. Antisocial behavior gives adolescents the opportunity to exert control over their lives. Controlling Crime Situational crime prevention a method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in narrow settings. Criminal activity can be reduced if planners are aware of the characteristics of sites and ituations that are at risk of crime. Criminals acts avoided if Targets are carefully guarded. The means to commit crime are controlled. authorization offenders are carefully monitored. Reducing opportunity. invulnerable space the principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunity individuals have to commit crime. Oscar Newmans defensible space crime can be prevented or displaced via the use of residential designs that reduce criminal opportunity. Crime Prevention Strategies Increase the effort involve to commit crime Unbreakable wish-wash on storefrontsLocking gates, fencing yards Installing brighter lights Owners photo on credit cards warrantor devices on cars Increase the risk of committing crime Crime discouragers people who serve as guardians of property or people come down the rewards of crime Marking property so it is difficult to sell Gender-neutral phone listings tracking systems Induce guilt increase shame Publishing John lists edit out annoying Earlier closing times for veto and pubs Anti-bullying programs in schools Remove excuses Electronic wayside speed displays The Costs and Benefits of Situational Crime PreventionHidden Benefits airing an effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another. Discouragement an effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations. Hidden Costs Displacement an effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move or direct offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets. Extinction an effect that occurs when crime simplification programs produce a short-term corroborative effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals plant to new conditions.Replacement an effect that occurs when criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs change their crime of choice. General deterrence a crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties, convincing the potential offender that the pains associated with crime surmo unt its benefits. Crime can be controlled via increasing the real or perceived threat of criminal punishment. sure thing of Punishment If the certainty of arrest, conviction, and sanctioning increases, crime rates should decline.Crime will persist if offenders believe that, if caught, they have a good chance of escaping punishment. Research indicates a direct relationship between crime rates and the certainty of punishment. Police and Certainty of Punishment Increasing the number of police officers on the street should cut the crime rate. The deterrent effect of police has been supported by research. Proactive, aggressive law enforcement is more effective than routine patrol. Severity of Punishment The threat of severe punishment should reduced the crime rate. There is little consensus regarding the severity of punishment, however. Speed of Punishment and disincentiveThe faster punishment is applied and the more closely punishment is linked to the crime, the more likely it will se rve as a deterrent. halt effect neutralized if there is a significant time lag between apprehension and punishment. Elapsed time between conviction and execution over ten years in many death penalty cases. Inter-relationship of severity, certainty, and speed the factors may influence one another. Certainty of punishment seems to have a great impact than its severity or speed. Critique of General bullying Rationality Some offenders suffer from personality disorders that impair judgment.Elevated emotional state of sex offenders negates the deterrent effect of the law. Alcohol impedes a persons ability to think rationally. System effectiveness American legal system is not very effective only 10% of all serious crimes result in apprehension. Many crimes go unreported. Police discretion impacts effect of deterrence. Odds of receiving a prison sentence is less than 20 per 1,000 crimes committed. Deterrability Deterrence impacts people differently. Threat of formal sanctions is foreign to high-risk offenders. Personality and mental disorders make people immune to deterrent power of the law.Some crimes are more deterrable than others minor offenses easier to deter serious crimes harder to deter. Specific deterrence the view that criminal sanctions should be so hefty that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts (recidivism). There is no clear-cut inference that punishment effectively deters criminals. One possible exception is domestic violence. Short-term effect when police take formal action (arrest), offenders are less likely to recidivate. semipermanent effect effect of arrest chop-chop decays and may actually escalate the frequency of repeat domestic violence.Arrest and punishment seems to have little effect on chronic and experienced offenders. Two-thirds of all convicted offenders are rearrested inside three years of their release from prison. incarceration may slow or delay recidivism in the short-term but the overall probability of re-arrest i s not reduced. The joltyest punishments may increase crime. Punishment may result in defiance rather than deterrence. Stigma of harsh punishment locks offenders into a criminal career. Criminals may believe that the likelihood of getting caught twice for the same type of crime is remote.Experiencing the harshest punishments may cause severe psychological problems. In neighborhoods where everyone has a criminal record, the effect of punishment erodes and offenders feel victimized. Incapacitation effect the view that if more criminals are sent to prison during their extremum crime years, it will reduce their life history opportunity to commit crime. Can Incapacitation Reduce Crime? Some experts find incapacitation reduces crime. Crime rate has dropped while prison population has risen. Economist Levitt concludes that each person behind bars results in a 15% decrease in serious crimes per year.Some experts argue against incapacitation. They feel that there is little evidence that i ncapacitating criminals will deter them from future criminality. Their additional views Prison experiences expose first-time offenders to high-ri